PREFACE
Prominent in Hellenistic philosophy is the debate over whether the sage is really always happy even if tortured. This doctrine that the tortured sage is happy is important because the Hellenistic philosophers used this case to debate the power of moral virtue in a person’s life. Modern pain research shows that it is indeed possible to be happy while being tortured because pain is not purely a sensory phenomenon. Based on this modern research, I investigate the positions of Epicurus, the Cynics, the Aristotelians, the Neoplatonists, the Skeptics and the Stoics concerning the sage’s complete happiness even if tortured. I show that the Stoics’ position agrees with modern pain research and the Stoics are right that the tortured sage could still be happy.
This does not show that the Stoic sage is always happy, though. While the common objection to Stoicism, that the Stoic sage is unemotional, is a misinterpretation of Stoic ethics, nevertheless Stoic philosophy cannot prove that the sage is always happy. For the Stoics claim that the sage is happy because of her oneness with God, but the Stoics are unable to demonstrate how a sage realizes this oneness and why this oneness makes a sage happy.
Indian philosophy, through Pyrrho’s visit to India, influenced Greek philosophy about the doctrine of the tortured sage who is indifferent to pain. Furthermore, Indian philosophy is able to modify Stoic philosophy so that we can show how the sage is always happy. For through the Indian technique of meditation a person can realize her oneness with God and experience deep joy and happiness. Modified by Indian philosophy with its technique of meditation, Stoic philosophy is right that the sage is always happy even if tortured.
Stoic philosophy has two more contributions to our ethical concerns. First, Stoic ethics is a very interesting synthesis of impartialism and partialism. Second, the Stoics’ understanding of the emotions and anger is better than our current understanding.
THE JOY OF TORTURE:
HELLENISTIC AND INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ON THE DOCTRINE
THAT THE SAGE IS ALWAYS HAPPY EVEN IF TORTURED
by
JOSEPH WALIGORE
B.A. Syracuse University, 1991
DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Philosophy in the Graduate School of Syracuse University
April 1995
Approved ____________________
Professor Michael Stocker
Date ________________________
Copyright 1995 Joseph Waligore
All rights Reserved
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Hellenistic philosophy on the doctrine that the sage is always happy
Chapter 2 Stoic philosophy on the doctrine that the sage is always happy even if tortured
Chapter 3 Is the Stoic sage really happy?
Chapter 4 Indian philosophy on the doctrine that the sages is always happy even if tortured
Chapter 5 The contributions of Stoic philosophy to our present ethical concerns
Hellenistic Philosophers on the Sage and Pain 1
Conceptions of Happiness 3
Pain Research 5
Aristotle on pain 17
Epicurus on pain 20
Cynics on pain 25
Plato and the Platonists on pain 33
The Skeptics on pain 40
The Stoics on the Sage and Pain 48
Oikeiosis 50
Reason and God 53
Critique of Annas 57
Stoics on Happiness 64
Stoics on Pain 71
Virtue and Pain 76
The Stoics, Emotions and Happiness 85
The Stoics and Emotions 87
The Stoic conception of pathos 91
The Stoic conception of apatheia 96
Nussbaum’s critique 100
The Stoics and eros 103
The Stoics and emotional ties 107
The Stoic theory of reservation 114
Modern research on Happiness 117
Happiness and God 123
Cosmic Whole and Gaia 126
Problems with the Stoic position 135
Indian philosophy on the sage and pain 141
The Upanishads on the sage and pain 142
Yoga on the sage and pain 149
The Bhagavad Gita on the sage and pain 154
The Jains on the sage and pain 157
The Jains and torture 162
Buddhism on the sage and pain 170
Buddhism and suffering 174
Inconsistency in Buddhism 178
Mahayana Buddhism 182
The boddhisattva 184
Indian philosophy and meditation 188
Indian influence on Greek philosophy 190
Possible Greek sources of Pyrrho’s philosophy 195
Stoic contributions to current ethics 208
Impartialism and partialism 211
The Stoics on impartialism and partialism 213
Diogenes of Babylon on partialism and the sage 217
Other Stoics on partialism and the sage 223
Modern theories of partialism 234
The Stoic synthesis of partialism and impartialism 237
Feminist ethics and Stoic ethics 242
The Stoic on the Emotions 245
Solomon on the emotions 246
The Stoic view of judgment 250
Stoic responses to criticisms of Solomon 255
Stocker on value and emotion 260
The Stoics on training the emotions 266
Modern psychotherapy and the Stoics 272
The Stoics and anger 275
Stoic arguments against anger 278
Taking another person’s point of view 283
Anger and diminishing our humanity 288
Summary of conclusions 295
Bibliography
PREFACE
Surprisingly prominent in Hellenistic philosophy is the doctrine that the sage, the really wise and virtuous person, is always happy. Many major Hellenistic philosophers maintain that no matter what external circumstances the sage encounters, he will always be happy because of his sagacity and moral virtue. It does not matter if the sage has no money or food, or if he is in exile, he will still be happy as virtue has such great importance and power in the sage’s life. This position was held by so many philosophers that it became a major question in Hellenistic philosophy how the sage would react if he suffered excruciating tortures such as being stretched on the rack. The worst case scenario that was often discussed was how a sage would react when being subjected to the bull of Phalaris. The bull of Phalaris was a hollow, bronze bull that the tyrant Phalaris had made.[1] Phalaris would force people into this bronze bull, light a fire under the bull and then laugh while the poor person roasted to death. Even more horrifying, the bull had flutes attached to its nose so that the cries of the tortured person would make sweet music. “The man will groan and shriek in the grip of unremitting pain, and his voice will make the sweetest possible music on the flutes.”[2]
Because it was a central contention of many Hellenistic schools that the sage was always happy, it was also a major philosophical question how the sage would react to being tortured in the bull of Phalaris or in other horrible ways. This problem of the tortured sage was frequently discussed in all the Greek philosophical schools because it was the test case for the thesis that the virtuous person was always happy. Many Hellenistic philosophers claimed that the sage had special powers to deal with torture because of the power of his moral virtue. Some philosophical schools even maintained that the sage would not be bothered by the torture at all. While this whole question may seem strange to us, it was a crucial question for the Hellenistic philosophers because it was the test case for the importance and power of virtue in human lives. This question is a central concern for much of Hellenistic philosophy and is considered in detail by Epicurus, the Cynics, the Stoics, the Aristotelians, the Platonists and the Skeptics. This theme is a neglected area in contemporary scholarship and part of the reason Hellenistic philosophy is not given its proper due is that modern philosophers do not realize that recent pain research supports the Hellenistic philosophers’ claim.
In this first chapter, after analyzing different conceptions of happiness, I will show that recent pain research supports the Hellenistic philosophers’ position: it really is possible to be tortured and still feel perfectly happy. I will then demonstrate that Aristotle, Epicurus, the Cynics, the Platonists, and the Skeptics all had inadequate positions on this issue. In the second chapter, I will explain the fundamental philosophical positions of the Stoics and show that their position on how the sage is happy even if tortured is supported by modern pain research.
While modern research supports the view that the Stoic sage can be happy even if tortured, this raises the question whether the Stoic sage is ever happy in his normal life. For a common critique of Stoicism is that the Stoic eradicates her emotions or her emotional bonds, so she cannot really be happy. In the third chapter I will show that this charge is false as the Stoics do not eradicate their emotions or emotional ties. In fact modern psychological research supports the position that the Stoic approach to emotions is the best way to happiness.
Thus two common charges against the Stoic position that the Stoic sage is always happy are false. The Stoic sage can indeed be completely happy even if he is tortured and the Stoic way of dealing with emotions is a good way of making the sage happy. This does not mean, though, that the Stoic sage really is happy. For the Stoics claim complete happiness comes from realizing our oneness and connection to God or the cosmic logos of which we are all part. I think they are right on this point and I present some modern scientific research that lends plausibility to their position. Nevertheless, judged by the Stoics’ own claim that we are part of God and awareness of this fact makes us happy, their account is deficient for two reasons. First, they maintain that we are born centered on our own interests and they are not able to describe a method by which we change from this selfishness to concern for our deep connection to God. Secondly, they are unable to offer a convincing argument that once someone becomes centered on her part in the whole, this will make him happy. So their account is deficient in what they considered to be the foundation of their whole ethical system.
In the fourth chapter, I maintain that Indian philosophy can improve on the Stoic deficiencies. For contemporaneously Indian philosophy was dealing with the same concerns as the Hellenistic philosophers and they offer a way to improve the Stoic position. First they offer a better method of realizing our connection to God–meditation. Secondly they give a more convincing argument that the sage is happy when he drops his selfish concerns and is instead concerned about the cosmic whole.
The last chapter shows that my modification of Stoicism is not an unreasonable modification as the Stoics themselves were already taking major steps in this direction. Lastly, I will argue that Stoic ethical theory has two important contributions to current ethical concerns. First, it is a synthesis of impartialism and partialism that deserves much more consideration as it emphasizes both a concern for justice and for particular relationships. Secondly, it has a better understanding of the emotions and their relation to reason and value than any of our current ethical theories.
[1]. Lucian Phalaris I 11-12.